请高手帮忙翻译一下这篇文章,急急!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
China's modern history of biological research ideas
Modern biology is not inherent in our cultural heritage, which is introduced from foreign countries to the East and West. Therefore, this study subjects in the course of development of our country, it is necessary to carefully trace the spread of it, take root and grow in all aspects. Its close relations and reality, lessons learned, for today the biological sciences rather reference, the significance is self-evident. Of course the study is also very difficult. Many things in the event, for a variety of complicated relations, but the process did not disclose all information on file, not for judgement and interpretation. In addition, because of what happened Qiejin more difficult to see cause and effect, clarifying the truth and make a reasonable judgement. At the same time, in the course of the study, vulnerable to feelings and emotional waves of Health, described the impact of objectivity. And the relevant parties to the relatives, students may also have to study some human interference. In addition, reviewed the development of the environment, may be complicated by a number of ideological problems. However, despite all the difficulties, or to begin the study. In Gouchen historical facts and clarify the Development of disciplines, restore the historical truth of calm and pragmatic attitude, as much as possible with a comprehensive, systematic, objective and real historical data of past things happened, as far as possible avoid unnecessary side issues and difficult Extricate themselves. In other words, the memory of China's efforts to "things in terms of the letter," the good tradition of historiography, removal "due to heart likes and dislikes, and then Huiyu" bad habit.
China's introduction of modern biology short time, relevant research lacks. However, as China is a country attaches great importance to the history, people have always been concerned about the subjects of the development process and its development experience. In the 1940s, the "science" has been disseminated by the then active in a number of fields biologists write the branch of the state of development of the article. The article for scholars and the public about developments in biology and then popularize knowledge plays an important role. In the 1980's, the number of units to learn anniversary commemoration of the establishment of dozens of opportunities for organizations to write the history of the development of this discipline, such as: China Plant Society (1933) 50th anniversary of the founding of the time, the organization has prepared a "Chinese botanist History "(Science Press, 1994); China physiology (1926) in the 60th anniversary of the founding of the time, the organization prepared by the" History of China Physiology "(Peking Union Medical College Press, 1993). Scientists also have some old work on their own memories to write articles or monographs, such as biochemist Zheng set, Zou Chenglu virologist and noble Yam, physiologist Zhang Xiangtong, Wang Zhijun, and so on. Some concern has always been the history of biological research biologists such as tree entomologist Zou Wen, Zhou Yaohe, plant physiologist Gong Li Liang, Michael Tan Jiazhen, and so on, they have committed to the preparation of the relevant professionals History. Some of the biological sciences departments such as the management of Pan Gao and Xue Wu Chun, also according to their own experiences and related literature to write some information on the biological development of China's history of articles and books.
Modern biology in China's development, but also aroused the concern of some foreign scholars. French scholar-too justification (G. Schneider), since the 1980s has been to China the development of genetics has a special interest in history, has written a monograph in this area; American scholar of Concepción (J. R. Pusey) also The theory of evolution in China spread done many studies. In addition, the U.S. Cornell University in Eagle Rock (K. Adler) had amphibians and reptiles zoology professor at China's development of a comprehensive study done.
In addition, there are a lot of young scholars in doing post-graduate theses, from the biological development of China's modern history of the area chosen topics, such as Chen Shengkun, Cao Yu, Jiang Yuping, Xiong Wei-min, such as by the Science Society of China in modern times The introduction of physiology and molecular biology of development in China, from some specific aspects of the beneficial exploration. Some of the history of science workers also carried out some research work in this area, such as WANG Zi-chun, Cheng Guang-sheng, Fan Hongye, Zhang Jie, asked in the early liberation of our country and the development of the biology of, and so on. In addition, the publication of the biography also many biologists, for the development of the work there are also some important exposition.
Overall, though his predecessors has done some very meaningful work, but a considerable part of these efforts are engaged in biological research and management personnel using amateur time, the situation according to their own professional writing. Most of these works is relatively simple, mainly review the facts. These long series of similar nature of things is to study the information was accumulated very important, but even the collation of historical materials, and its work there still exist many deficiencies. The deeds of the study, scientists are still inadequate. From the research point of view, the lack of historical analysis and less subject to consider the impact between the disciplines of biology and the adjacent infiltration in the study of the social environment impact on the development of biology, has yet to be deepening. There are many people on the field before, the overall research is still inadequate, not fully reflect the history and development of the whole subject which should be summed up experiences and lessons. Some works are purely for the patchwork,错误百出. Not to mention the research work of scientists worldwide in the review, the overall research work in measurement analysis of the literature, and so on. In short, the scope of the study and development of deep-seated problems still not enough, there are a lot of work to be started.
Modern biological research and study the history of modern history, will need to read a lot of relevant information on file, the biologist and the related parties to carry out the necessary interviews, according to detailed and objective historical data to elaborate what the past has happened. In this I have no intention to talk about relevant research methods, but based on past can see, without mentioning some of the original emphasis on the subject but also the development of an important number of issues, in particular the following aspects.
1. Assessment of the work of foreign scholars
During the inspection, the spread of disciplines, the first involving the relevant people and institutions in this regard attention should be paid to a reasonable number of foreigners Review of the work. These people's political inclination and the world as well as research purposes there may be one way or another, but their academic contribution, or should be an objective evaluation. These people are the two categories is the study of China's foreign scholars, and the other is in China's direct knowledge and dissemination of biological theory of scholars. These two aspects of work, less attention to the past. They work for us is the development of modern biology had some influence, such as Britain, France, Russia, Germany and the United States some biologists in the scientific research institutions of China's biological research, for the classification of plants and animals, resources survey For a considerable foundation for the emergence of modern biology is to stimulate and promote the role of Health. In the first category, scholars such as the U.S. representative at Cornell University, Professor Ni Damu (also translated Nidan, J. G. Needham), research works include "China's dragonflies Manual" (Manual ofthe Dragonflies ofChina), including Law Chi, many at Cornell University to study the early Chinese Health
Of Jurists in their subglottic learning; College of Agriculture Dean of the University of California Professor Mel (E.D.Merril1) is similar to the scholars that he had in the Philippines Secretary of the science, botany research has long been engaged in East Asia , The "East Asian botany bibliography" (A Bibliography ofe ~ tem Asiatic Botany, 1938), China's Pei Kam that botanists from his subglottic In addition, such as Harvard University professor Ellen (G. M. Allen) China has long-term study of the beast, published "China and Mongolia, the beast" (e Mammals ofChina andMongolia), and so on. The third category, such as Qi Tianxi (N. G. Gee) 1912, in Soochow University and established the first biological science, and director, one of the founders of China's entomology Mr Fu that is, from his name; Scholars have similar fraternity, the Harvard-Yenching University (A. M. Boring; amphibious reptiles China's one of the founders of Liu Cheng-chiu that is out of her subglottic), Shi De Wei (Albert N. Steward), Ke-li Hu (c.R.Ke1.
1ogg), Wright (s.F.Light), and so on, they are on the biology of early education has been relatively good contribution. They spread in China and the introduction of the biological aspects of work should be given appropriate review.
2 China's early development model of discipline and institutional process
At that time, in this regard to the main biologists inspected the idea of building disciplines and subjects mode of development, and their system of biological disciplines of the efforts.
Early the founders of China's biological disciplines such as physiologist Lin-sheng, zoologist and botanist Law-Hussein cheated, Liu Shen-e are all very entrepreneurial spirit of the well-known scholars, but their fate and academic life of the idea of building Not the same, which reflects the personnel training and the establishment of branches has their own characteristics, but they have excellent performance. For example, from building their own research institutions in the practice, students can see that the countries in which research institutions and schools formed the first to follow the example of the object, such as the United States to study the Law Chi-fu, such as imitation Hussein and the United States Institute for the establishment of Science Society of Westchester Biological Institute at Harvard University's Arnold Arboretum to imitate the establishment of forest Lushan Botanic Garden; scholars in France have tried to France in accordance with the relevant model to the establishment of universities and research institutions. Study the social environment in China at that time appeared in such features, and its subjects in the history of the development of the results, may be very meaningful.
In the disciplines of the system in efforts to establish the academic community is also an important aspect. In this regard the general narrative has many, but his usefulness and effectiveness analysis or deficient. In addition, the introduction of science as the basis of biological terminology and identification of a translation is also very worthy of in-depth study of a problem. Accept the new disciplines, involving a new set of theories and concepts, terminology related to the translation and reunification is a very important aspect. Animals and Plants in China and the whole of biology, the terminology of the Japanese influence is profound, its pros and cons of how to «very worth exploring.
Period of very entrepreneurial biologist with the international academic community to maintain the exchange of academics is able to track the international trend of academic disciplines and an important driving force for rapid progress in the (then paleontology, physiology, anthropology and birds, fish are classified This has been reflected). To achieve such an exchange, the use of foreign language publications published papers is very important, such as "Chinese Journal of Physiology," "China-paleontology," and "Institute of Biological Science Society of China on" the use of foreign languages are a specialized academic papers. But they also noted that the full localization must use their own disciplines for the universal biological knowledge, the only way to make biological sustainable development. Such as "China-paleontology," often foreign-language books translated into Chinese, and "Science" and other publications are generally published a large number of scientific papers and senior Popular Science. Early this attention to the biologists to track international academic developments, and efforts to popularize biological knowledge of both domestic practice is noteworthy.
Discipline in the process of development will inevitably produce some academic thinking of the confrontation. In the 1930s, Hu and Wang Jing-hee had a confrontation on the steps reflected the social reality (they are the original ideology of "trendy" and "tradition" of the difference, is a "trendy" go-getters, is a "Xue Heng" The main force, while they wrote the "independent reviews" in the "New Youth", "relatives" relations).
China has "by the World Bank Zhiyong," the great tradition, but in the nature of the universe and the essence of life in Why, it seems to be some weak. Western modern science-come, we are learning how effective, in addition to classification, the development of the theory of the subjects had what kind of contribution. There are factions, but there are school? «This is also very worthy of in-depth examination.
3 social environment for the development of biological effects
The introduction of modern biological science at a time when China's "poor and weak," the calamity-ridden period. The establishment of the scientific community itself there is a "science to save the country" concept included. On the one hand, the scientific community hopes that the rapid development, the prosperity of the country to become an important tool, on the other hand, it lacks funds to support such a tool. At that time, the development of biology and geology Similarly, a strong pragmatic tendency (boring and the British Chen diverted to illustrate the impact of the socio-economic backwardness, on the theory of the strong and spend more experimental science is the development of A lot of limitations. Also, the National Academy of Peiping by the plant only two microscopes, one of Taiwan or the bad, is enough to note the lack of equipment at that time). On biology, agriculture, forestry services, medical and health was the cause of biologists moment to consider the issue. After all, we want to make a strong country with the desire too urgent. In addition, the traditional social and cultural (by the World Bank Zhiyong) on the impact of this process (the public's understanding of biology, and the impact of this discipline). These topics of science and the choice to carry out the work of
And achievements have all had an impact on. In the course could be considered in general and case studies on the combination.
4 unified scientific planning and identification of the pros and cons of "climbing" the effectiveness of inspection
1949 after the founding of New China, China's restructuring of the science and technology education and scientific research system. This system for our economic backwardness of such a large country, and concentrate the limited human and financial resources, giving priority to the development (some of the continued development) and linked to the national economy closely related to a branch of a prominent role. China's vast number of biologists with the actual national conditions, and following by the World Bank Zhiyong, and explore the great tradition of truth in the development and utilization of biological resources, flora and fauna-prepared, pest and disease control and biological macromolecules, such as protein synthesis and research is made A considerable contribution. However, in practice there are often quick success of the guiding ideology, but also over-emphasized science and technology for politics, the academic exchanges with foreign countries rarely, its negative impact is very serious.
5 political interference in the scientific development of hazards
This aspect of the problem was mainly due to the first half of the 20th century under the previous,后起China as a socialist country in science and technology development in a comprehensive follow the Soviet Union "Big Brother" caused a consequence, of course, have our own reasons. At that time, the ideological influence, to the scientific work of political labels affixed with philosophy and theory instead of scientific conclusions, had a very bad influence. In that period asked, decision-makers formulate a series of extreme leftist line, principles and policies so that biologists can not work properly, some scholars flee abroad. "Anti-Rightist" campaign after the failure to promptly corrected, resulting in the development of the "Cultural Revolution" extreme point, seriously dampened the enthusiasm of large numbers of intellectuals to China's great cause of the biological sciences harm. Has been to implement the reform and opening up in 1978, only to change this situation, in this regard is very serious lessons to be careful summing up.
6 China's development of biological status
In recent years, China's biology is a very rapid progress, but there are many unsatisfactory status quo in place. The most prominent inadequate or lack of innovation. My biology and the development of advanced countries than there are still gaps in biotechnology and genetic engineering, neuroscience, developmental biology, and other cutting-edge fields, our original results still inadequate. Western developed countries still use their technological superiority, low-cost access to China's germplasm resources and high prices to sell their patent. China says economic development and social progress while making a tremendous contribution to, but in biological pharmaceuticals, national health care, reproductive health, biodiversity and germplasm resources protection, external monitoring of biological invasion, a major biological disaster warning, the global Climate warming on the impact of China's biological and countermeasures, and other aspects of our work is far from being to achieve the desired objectives. Where problems arise, the fundamental reason for what is very worthy of our consideration. Perhaps our culture is a more utilitarian focus on the culture, understanding of its natural life or the nature of limited interest. We may also be the introduction of Western science, cognitive science
And it called for the development of the social environment and management philosophy and education there is some bias. Because today, because of institutional reasons, our research work there are still large number of low-level duplication, issues such as lack of basic research, research topics instant success, only concerned about the number of published articles, research can not be concerned about the depth and quality of the papers. This, in turn, and the prevailing academic community as a whole impetuous closely related.
We are continuing to introduce advanced foreign technology and biological science theory, in other words, in the past domestic scholars to face the academic introduction, spread and how to speed up their biological development issues still exist today. Review of the past course of development, no doubt can provide useful lessons.
有的实在不懂。
请高手帮我翻译一个案例！ 中译英。谢谢！
Case 1 "by air" in the end this is CIP or CIP
[Case]
A certain export companies with a customer in Singapore, there have been some differences in terms of price, has been at loggerheads over. A and this customer to do business is conducted by air transport, A that the "CIF" is only used for "maritime and road transport" rather than for "by air", so persist in using the "CIP" provisions (and the banks also insisted that in accordance with air must be used with international practice "CIP"). Customers can insist "CIF", they think "CIP" over "CIF" more than a cost. A would like to ask in the end "CIP" and "CIF" What is the difference in cost? A practice is not correct?
[Analysis]
Solution 1:
CIP refers to costs incurred by the seller as follows: freight, insurance premium paid to the de facto destination. CIF means the costs incurred by the seller as follows: freight, insurance premium paid to the designated port of destination.
The two terms on the difference in cost is:
If the consignee named place of destination for Singapore may be accessible directly or through international air cargo transshipment in Hong Kong Airport (IATA regulations) such as: Beijing Capital International Airport (Beijing Airport), Shanghai Pudong International Airport (Shanghai Pudong Airport), Nanjing Lukou International Airport (Nanjing Lukou Airport) and so on, then the costs in terms of the above-mentioned non-substantive distinction. Because, according to international practice, after the goods arrive at the port of destination airport, any costs arising from the buyer by the consignee, such as delivery charges, storage charges and labor costs and so on.
If the consignee is not an international airport named place of destination airport, but the domestic inland cities (such as: Wuxi, Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Jiaxing), or the consignee designated factories, you can not use the terms of CIF can only use the terms CIP.
CIF is a "port-to-port" provisions can be applied by air Airport to Airport (Airport to Airport).
CIP provisions and any mode of transport of "multimodal transport", the consignor will bear to the "de facto destination" of the insurance and freight. CIP airline is generally unable to accept the terms, usually only the air cargo forwarding company law to complete the transportation task.
Solution 2:
CIF is the one commonly used trade terms, namely: Cost Insurance and Freight (... named port of destination), cost, insurance and freight (named port of destination). CIF in theory, the appropriate mode of transport is the water, and use the symbolic mode of delivery, that is, the seller in accordance with the contract, in the port of shipment Port of shipment of the goods at home and submit a full set of compliance documents, completed the delivery obligation. In the CIF conditions, in order to avoid some cost differences may arise, CIF, some deformation, such as: CIF Liner Terms, CIF Ex Ship's Hold, CIF Landed so. Some buyers and sellers are simply words in the contract specified
