约翰·罗尔斯(John Bordley Rawls.1921年(辛酉年)2月21日-2002年(壬午年)11月24日),美国政治哲学家、伦理学家。普林斯顿大学哲学博士,哈佛大学教授,写过《正义论》(A Theory of Justice(1971))、《政治自由主义》、《作为公平的正义:正义新论》、《万民法》等名著,是20世纪英语世界最著名的政治哲学家之一。
20世纪70年代西方新自然法学派的主要代表之一,同时也是20世纪最伟大的哲学家之一。他培养的许多学生现今都成了道德和政治哲学的重要人物,如:纳格尔(Thomas Nagel)和科恩(Gerald Allan Cohen)等。
出生于马里兰州的巴尔的摩,是家中五个孩子中的老二。二战时入伍服役,后来拒绝升军官的机会退伍回大学念书。1943年毕业于普林斯顿大学,1950年获该校博士学位。先后在普林斯顿大学、康奈尔大学、麻省理工学院和哈佛大学任教。尽管著作不多,但其在西方学术界影响甚大。
1951年发表《用于伦理学的一种决定程式的纲要》。此后他专注于社会正义问题,并潜心构筑一种理 性性质的正义理论,陆续发表了《作为公正的正义》(1958)、《宪法的自由和正义的观念》(1963)、《正义感》(1963)、《非暴力反抗的辩护》 (1966)、《分配的正义》(1967)、《分配的正义:一些补充》(1968)等文。
在此期间,罗尔斯着手撰写《正义论》一书,前后三易其稿,终成20世纪下半叶伦理学、政治哲学领域最重要的理论著作,于1971年正式出版发行,旋即在学术界产生巨大反响。由于第一版的《正义论》封面为绿色,当时一 些哈佛的学子以“绿魔”来形容这本书的影响力。据后来的统计数位显示,自1971年,全球共有约5000余部论著专门对其研究讨论。除此以外,罗尔斯的著 作还包括《政治自由主义》(1993)、《万民法》(1998)、《道德哲学讲演录》(2000)、《作为公平的正义——正义新论》(2001)等。
有的评论家把罗尔斯与柏拉图、阿奎那和黑格尔这些思想泰斗相提并论。诺齐克当年有言,政治哲学出了罗尔斯之后,你可以跟着他思考、可以针对他思考、可是不能不理会他而思考。罗尔斯政治哲学的特色,莫过于他对于「公平」意义下的「正义」这项政治价值的强调。此前的政治哲学,往往局部强调自由、平等、幸福、效率等某一项价值。罗尔斯独排众议,认为一个社会是否公平,乃是最根本的问题所在。正因为公平是社会生活的最高价值,所以剥夺个人自由、歧视他人、以多数为名迫害少数、或者坐视个人之间的命运差距,都违反了正义。
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《正义论》
问世三十一年后,约翰·罗尔斯离开了人世,停止了他对于公平的正义的思考。从各方面来说,罗尔斯的《正义论》及后续的《政治的自由主义》、《公平的正义再陈述》都属于20世纪思想界最具有影响力的作品之列,其中理论贡献最大、最具有原创性的当属《正义论》。在这些著作里,罗尔斯提出了一个融汇西方正义概念的基本涵义并又极大丰富了其内涵的当代社会正义理论,即公平的正义的理论。公平的正义在这些著作中被诠释为在一个宪法民主制社会中人们关于一个健全的、持久的社会合作体系的条件的共同观念,因而是一种内含于关于一个健全持久的社会合作体系的观念中的正义观。总体地说,罗尔斯基于公平的正义观念是在自由主义框架内阐发的一种正义理论。但同时,它也将社会主义的实质平等观念的某些要素纳入了公平的正义的理论。在这个理论中,核心的概念是平等的自由。罗尔斯最引以为傲的正义学说,是以洛克、卢梭和康德的社会契约论为基础,论证西方民主社会的道德价值,反对传统的功利主义,认为正义是社会制度的主要美德,就像真理对思想体系一样;非正义的法律和制度,不论如何有效,也应加以改造和清除。他还认为正义与社会合作密切联系,并指出应当区别对制度来说的正义原则和对个人来说的正义原则。
对制度来说的正义原则有二:①每个人都有权拥有与他人的自由并存的同样的自由,包括公民的各种政治权利、财产权利。②对社会和经济的不平等应作如下安排,即人们能合理地指望这种不平等对每个人有利,而且地位与官职对每个人开放。对个人来说的正义原则,首先也是公平的原则,即如果制度是正义的,个人自愿接受并能从中获得利益,在这种情况下,个人就应当遵守这种制度。罗尔斯将法治称为“形式正义”或“作为正规性的正义”,即对公共规则的正规的和公正的执行。
法律正是对理性的人所发出的公共规则的强制命令,目的在于调节人们的行为,提供社会合作的结构。而自由则是制度所规定的各种权利和义务的总和,所以法治和自由是相互联系的,不能将法律看作是为争夺权益而制定的产物,而应将它看作是试图实现正义原则而规定的最好的方针,具有道德的功能。70年代初,他的这种学说在美国和其他西方国家法学界引起了强烈反响,被认为在美国处于政治动荡的时刻,为自由主义的政治、法律思想提供了复兴的希望。
??A Theory of Justice. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1971. The revised edition of 1999 incorporates changes that Rawls made for translated editions of A Theory of Justice. Some Rawls scholars use the abbreviation TJ to refer to this work.
??Political Liberalism. The John Dewey Essays in Philosophy, 4. New York: Columbia University Press, 1993. The hardback edition published in 1993 is not identical. The paperback adds a valuable new introduction and an essay titled "Reply to Habermas." Some Rawls scholars use the abbreviation PL to refer to this work.
??The Law of Peoples: with "The Idea of Public Reason Revisited." Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1999. This slim book includes two works; a further development of his essay entitled "The Law of Peoples" and another entitled "Public Reason Revisited", both published earlier in his career.
??Collected Papers. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1999. This collection of shorter papers was edited by Samuel Freeman.
??Lectures on the History of Moral Philosophy. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 2000. This collection of lectures was edited by Barbara Herman. It has an introduction on modern moral philosophy from 1600–1800 and then lectures on Hume, Leibniz, Kant, and Hegel.
??Justice as Fairness: A Restatement. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap Press, 2001. This shorter summary of the main arguments of Rawls' political philosophy was edited by Erin Kelly. Many versions of this were circulated in typescript and much of the material was delivered by Rawls in lectures when he taught courses covering his own work at Harvard University.
??Lectures on the History of Political Philosophy. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2007. Collection of lectures on Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, Joseph Butler, J.J. Rousseau, David Hume, J.S. Mill, and Karl Marx, edited by Samuel Freeman.
??A Brief Inquiry into the Meaning of Sin and Faith. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 2010. With introduction and commentary by Thomas Nagel, Joshua Cohen, and Robert Merrihew Adams. Senior thesis, Princeton, 1942. This volume includes a brief late essay by Rawls entitled On My Religion.
??"A Study in the Grounds of Ethical Knowledge: Considered with Reference to Judgments on the Moral Worth of Character." Ph.D. Dissertation, Princeton University, 1950.
??"Outline of a Decision Procedure for Ethics." Philosophical Review (April 1951), 60 (2): 177-197.
??"Two Concepts of Rules." Philosophical Review (January 1955), 64 (1):3-32.
??"Justice as Fairness." Journal of Philosophy (October 24, 1957), 54 (22): 653-662.
??"Justice as Fairness." Philosophical Review (April 1958), 67 (2): 164-194.
??"The Sense of Justice." Philosophical Review (July 1963), 72 (3): 281-305.
??"Constitutional Liberty and the Concept of Justice" Nomos VI (1963) (in the notes to the second volume of his Law, Legislation and Liberty, Hayek refers to this article to show that Rawls agreed with the Lockean conception that what could be just or unjust was the way competition was carried on, not its results)
??"Distributive Justice: Some Addenda." Natural Law Forum (1968), 13: 51-71.
??"Reply to Lyons and Teitelman." Journal of Philosophy (October 5, 1972), 69 (18): 556-557.
??"Reply to Alexander and Musgrave." Quarterly Journal of Economics (November 1974), 88 (4): 633-655.
??"Some Reasons for the Maximin Criterion." American Economic Review (May 1974), 64 (2): 141-146.
??"Fairness to Goodness." Philosophical Review (October 1975), 84 (4): 536-554.
??"The Independence of Moral Theory." Proceedings and Addresses of the American Philosophical Association(November 1975), 48: 5-22.
??"A Kantian Conception of Equality." Cambridge Review (February 1975), 96 (2225): 94-99.
??"The Basic Structure as Subject." American Philosophical Quarterly (April 1977), 14 (2): 159-165.
??"Kantian Constructivism in Moral Theory." Journal of Philosophy (September 1980), 77 (9): 515-572.
??"Justice as Fairness: Political not Metaphysical." Philosophy & Public Affairs (Summer 1985), 14 (3): 223-251.
??"The Idea of an Overlapping Consensus." Oxford Journal for Legal Studies (Spring 1987), 7 (1): 1-25.
??"The Priority of Right and Ideas of the Good." Philosophy & Public Affairs (Fall 1988), 17 (4): 251-276.
??"The Domain of the Political and Overlapping Consensus." New York University Law Review (May 1989), 64 (2): 233-255.
??"Roderick Firth: His Life and Work." Philosophy and Phenomenological Research (March 1991), 51 (1): 109-118.
??"The Law of Peoples." Critical Inquiry (Fall 1993), 20 (1): 36-68.
??"Political Liberalism: Reply to Habermas." Journal of Philosophy (March 1995), 92 (3):132-180.
??"The Idea of Public Reason Revisited," Chicago Law Review (1997), 64 (3): 765-807. [PRR]